Group A Streptococcus invasive infection in children: Epidemiologic changes and implications.

Group A Streptococcus (GAS) can cause a broad array of clinical manifestations and complications. Recently, in post COVID-19 postpandemic months, there has been an increased incidence and severity of invasive infections in the pediatric age group in Spain and other European countries with high morbidity, affecting mostly to young children, associated with seasonal peaks in incidence of viral respiratory pathogens. The increased in incidence and severity has not been associated with predominant GAS strains, but rather to the lack of immunity to both GAS and common viral respiratory infections due to isolation measures to prevent COVID-19. Due to the nonspecific initial clinical manifestations a high index of suspicion is necessary in order to initiate a prompt medical and surgical treatment when necessary to improve the outcome. Prevention strategies are needed as well as continuous microbiological surveillance of iGAS strains.

Increased risk of group B streptococcal sepsis and meningitis in HIV-exposed uninfected infants in a high-income country.

The purpose of this study is to compare group B Streptococcus (GBS) infection incidence in HIV-exposed uninfected (HEU) and HIV-unexposed (HU) infants in a Spanish cohort. We conducted a retrospective study in 5 hospitals in Madrid (Spain). Infants ≤ 90 days of life with a GBS infection were included from January 2008 to December 2017. Incidence of GBS infection in HEU and HU children was compared. HEU infants presented a sevenfold greater risk of GBS infection and a 29-fold greater risk of GBS meningitis compared to HU, with statistical significance. Early-onset infection was tenfold more frequent in HEU children, with statistical significance, and late-onset infection was almost fivefold more frequent in the HUE infants' group, without statistical significance. CONCLUSION: HEU infants presented an increased risk of GBS sepsis and meningitis. One in each 500 HEU infants of our cohort had a central nervous system infection and 1 in each 200, a GBS infection. Although etiological causes are not well understood, this should be taken into account by physicians when attending this population. WHAT IS KNOWN: • HIV-exposed uninfected infants are at higher risk of severe infections. • An increased susceptibility of these infants to group B Streptococcus infections has been described in low- and high-income countries, including a higher risk of meningitis in a South African cohort. WHAT IS NEW: • Group B Streptococcal meningitis is more frequent in HIV-exposed uninfected infants also in high-income countries. • Physicians should be aware of this increased risk when attending these infants.

Neumomediastino en Pediatría. Experiencia en un centro terciario / Pneumomediastinum in Pediatrics. Tertiary school experience

Introducción: el neumomediastino se define como la presencia de aire dentro del mediastino. Es una patología infrecuente fuera del periodo neonatal, que generalmente acontece en varones jóvenes y de complexión delgada. Material y métodos: se diseña un estudio descriptivo de serie de casos, retrospectivo (2009-2016) y prospectivo (2016-2019). Se incluyeron todos los pacientes de entre seis meses y 18 años diagnosticados de neumomediastino en nuestro centro. Se incluyeron ocho pacientes y se analizaron las variables epidemiológicas, clínicas, diagnósticas y terapéuticas. Resultados: el 87% de nuestros casos fueron diagnosticados de neumomediastino espontáneo, el 37% de ellos presentaron factores predisponentes como consumo de tóxicos, viajes en avión, maniobra de Valsava o infecciones. El motivo de consulta más frecuente fue el dolor torácico (75%), seguido de disnea (37%), palpitaciones y fiebre (12,5%). En la exploración física, el signo más prevalente fue el enfisema subcutáneo (37%), seguido del signo de Hamman (12,5%). El diagnóstico se realizó en base a la clínica y las pruebas de imagen. Todos los casos se confirmaron con radiografía de tórax y solo uno requirió tomografía computarizada de confirmación. Ningún paciente requirió soporte respiratorio y la estancia media hospitalaria fue de dos días. Conclusiones: el neumomediastino es una condición habitualmente benigna y autolimitada. Es una patología que, a pesar de su baja incidencia, debe incluirse en el diagnóstico diferencial del dolor torácico dada su potencial gravedad al poder propagarse al tejido subcutáneo, endotorácico, peritoneal o raquídeo (AU)

Introduction: pneumomediastinum is defined as the presence of air inside the mediastinum. It is infrequent beyond the neonatal period and typically occurs in male youth with a slender build.Material and methods: we conducted a descriptive study of a case series with retrospective data collection in the 2009-2016 period and prospective collection in 2016-2019. We included all patients aged 6 months to 18 years given a diagnosis of pneumomediastinum in our hospital. The total sample included 8 patients, and we analysed epidemiological, clinical, diagnostic and therapeutic variables.Results: 87% of the patients received a diagnosis of spontaneous pneumomediastinum, and there were predisposing factors in 37% of them, such as substance use, air travel, Valsalva manoeuvres or infection. The most frequent reason for seeking care was chest pain (75%), followed by dyspnoea (37%), palpitations and fever (12.5%). The most prevalent sign in the physical examination was subcutaneous emphysema (37%) followed by Hamman’s sign (12.5%). The diagnosis was based on the clinical manifestations and imaging features. All cases were confirmed by chest radiography and only 1 required CT for confirmation. None of the patients required respiratory support, and the average length of stay was approximately 2 days.Conclusions: pneumomediastinum is usually a benign and self-limited condition. Despite its low incidence, it should be included in the differential diagnosis of chest pain due to its potential severity, as it can spread to subcutaneous, endothoracic, peritoneal or spinal tissue. (AU)

Rotavirus gastroenteritis hospitalizations in provinces with different vaccination coverage rates in Spain, 2013-2018.

BACKGROUND: Rotavirus (RV) vaccines are available in Spain since 2006 but are not included in the National Immunization Program. RV vaccination has reached an intermediate vaccination coverage rate (VCR) but with substantial differences between provinces. The aim of this study was to assess the ratio of RV gastroenteritis (RVGE) admissions to all-cause hospitalizations in children under 5 years of age in areas with different VCR. METHODS: Observational, multicenter, cross-sectional, medical record-based study. All children admitted to the study hospitals with a RVGE confirmed diagnosis during a 5-year period were selected. The annual ratio of RVGE to the total number of all-cause hospitalizations in children < 5 years of age were calculated. The proportion of RVGE hospitalizations were compared in areas with low (< 30%), intermediate (31-59%) and high (> 60%) VCR. RESULTS: From June 2013 to May 2018, data from 1731 RVGE hospitalizations (16.47% of which were nosocomial) were collected from the 12 study hospitals. RVGE hospital admissions accounted for 2.82% (95 CI 2.72-3.00) and 43.84% (95% CI 40.53-47.21) of all-cause and Acute Gastroenteritis (AGE) hospitalizations in children under 5 years of age, respectively. The likelihood of hospitalization due to RVGE was 56% (IC95%, 51-61%) and 27% (IC95%, 18-35%) lower in areas with high and intermediate VCR, respectively, compared to the low VCR areas. CONCLUSIONS: RVGE hospitalization ratios are highly dependent on the RV VCR. Increasing VCR in areas with intermediate and low coverage rates would significantly reduce the severe burden of RVGE that requires hospital management in Spain. Clinical trial registration Not applicable.

Síndrome del hombre rojo en pediatría: a propósito de 2 casos / Syndrome of the red man in pediatrics: a report of 2 cases

Describimos dos casos de aparición de síndrome de hombre rojo o cuello rojo (SHR) en población pediátrica, una lactante de 3 meses y un niño de 12 años. En ambos pacientes se sustituyó vancomicina por otro glucopéptido, teicoplanina, sin haberse presentado este síndrome en ninguna de sus administraciones a pesar de la semejanza estructural existente entre ambos fármacos. (AU)

We describe two cases of red man or red neck syndrome (RRS) appearance in paediatric population, an infant of 3 months and a child of 12 years. In both patients vancomycin was replaced by another glycopeptide, teicoplanin, without this syndrome having occurred in any of their administrations despite the structural similarity between two drugs. (AU)

[Kingella kingae as a common cause of arthritis septic in children]. / Kingella kingae como agente causal frecuente de artritis séptica en Pediatría.

OBJECTIVE: Kingella kingae is a common colonizer of the oropharynx in children that may lead to invasive infection, mainly osteoarticular infections. Invasive infections occur almost exclusively in young children, fundamentally fewer than two years old. K. kingae infections in children are probably underdiagnosed due to the difficulty in growing in routine cultures and the absence of systematic realization of molecular techniques to identify it. It is the most common bacteria involved in childhood osteoarticular infections in recent series and increasingly being recognized in Spain. We report our experience on the epidemiological and clinical characteristics of osteoarticular infections in children in recent years. METHODS: Retrospective analysis of septic arthritis by K. kingae identified by PCR in joint fluid in children during 2010-2016. Epidemiological, clinical and laboratory characteristics are presented. RESULTS: Five arthritis by K. kingae were identified, all of them in ≤6 years old children. Median leukocytes, CRP and ESR were 12950 leukocytes/µL, 4.84 mg/dL and 58 mm/h respectively, and 61,322 leukocytes /µL in joint fluid. All patients evolved favorably. CONCLUSIONS: Osteoarticular infections by K. kingae in children usually present low increase of inflammatory markers despite being invasive infections. The development of PCR in sterile samples has greatly improved the diagnostic yield of K. kingae infections improving the management of osteoarthritis in children.

Guía de la Sociedad Española de Infectología Pediátrica para el diagnóstico y tratamiento de la toxoplasmosis congénita / The Spanish Society of Pediatric Infectious Diseases Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of congenital toxoplasmosis

La toxoplasmosis congénita es la consecuencia de la transmisión fetal por vía transplacentaria de Toxoplasma gondii tras la primoinfección materna. El riesgo de infección fetal es bajo en infecciones en el primer trimestre y va aumentando con la edad gestacional, mientras que la gravedad de la infección disminuye con esta. El diagnóstico de infección materna se realiza mediante la demostración de seroconversión o ante la presencia de IgM positiva con anticuerpos IgG de baja avidez. Las gestantes con infección demostrada deben recibir espiramicina para intentar evitar su transmisión al feto. El diagnóstico de infección fetal se realiza mediante reacción en cadena de la polimerasa (PCR) en líquido amniótico obtenido a partir de la semana 18 de gestación. Si esta prueba resulta positiva, debe iniciarse tratamiento a la embarazada con pirimetamina, sulfadiazina y ácido folínico. La mayoría de los niños infectados nacen asintomáticos pero hasta el 80% desarrolla secuelas visuales o neurológicas durante su infancia y adolescencia. El diagnóstico neonatal es complicado porque los anticuerpos IgM e IgA y la PCR en sangre y líquido cefalorraquídeo pueden ser falsamente negativos. En estos casos, el diagnóstico puede realizarse mediante la constatación de un ascenso significativo de los anticuerpos IgG o la persistencia de los mismos después del año de vida. El tratamiento neonatal con pirimetamina y sulfadiazina disminuye la posibilidad de secuelas a largo plazo. La toxoplasmosis congénita es una enfermedad prevenible mediante el cribado pregestacional y la adopción de medidas de profilaxis primaria en las gestantes seronegativas (AU)

Congenital toxoplasmosis is the result of transplacental fetal infection by Toxoplasma gondii after the primary maternal infection. The severity of the disease depends on the gestational age at transmission. First trimester infections are more severe, but less frequent, than third trimester infections. Acute maternal infection is diagnosed by seroconversion or by the detection of IgM antibodies and a low IgG avidity test. In these cases, spiramycin should be initiated to prevent transmission to the fetus. For identification of fetal infection, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing of amniotic fluid after 18 weeks gestation should be performed. If fetal infection is confirmed, the mothers should be treated with pyrimethamine, sulfadiazine and folinic acid. Most infants infected in utero are born with no obvious signs of toxoplasmosis, but up to 80% developed learning and visual disabilities later in life. Neonatal diagnosis with IgM/IgA antibodies or blood/cerebrospinal fluid PCR may be difficult because false-negative results frequently occur. In these cases diagnosis is possible by demonstrating a rise in IgG titers during follow-up or by the detection of antibodies beyond one year of age. Early treatment with pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine may improve the ophthalmologic and neurological outcome. Congenital toxoplasmosis is a preventable disease. Pre-pregnancy screening and appropriate counseling regarding prevention measures in seronegative women may prevent fetal infection (AU)

Osteomielitis aguda: epidemiología, manifestaciones clínicas, diagnóstico y tratamiento / Acute osteomyelitis: epidemiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment

Introducción: El presente estudio revisa la epidemiología, las manifestaciones clínicas y el manejo de los casos de osteomielitis aguda (OA) ingresados en un hospital pediátrico de tercer nivel. Metodología: Estudio descriptivo de los pacientes menores de 15 años ingresados con el diagnóstico de OA entre 2000 y 2011, retrospectivo hasta 2006, y posteriormente prospectivo. Resultados: Se identificaron 50 pacientes (52% varones) con una mediana de edad de 2 años. La sintomatología preponderante al ingreso fue dolor (94%), impotencia funcional (90%) y fiebre (72%). Las localizaciones más frecuentes fueron el fémur (32%), la tibia (28%) y el calcáneo (22%). Se encontró leucocitosis >12.000/μl en el 56%, VSG elevada >20mm/h en un 26 y un 64% con PCR superior a 20mg/l. El 20% de los hemocultivos resultó positivo, siendo Streptococcus del grupo A el germen más frecuente (11%).La gammagrafía ósea con 99Tc permitió el diagnóstico de confirmación en todos los casos. El tratamiento antibiótico fue intravenoso (i.v.) durante una media de 10 días ±3 DE, continuándose por vía oral (v.o.) una media de 18 días ±6 DE. Tres pacientes requirieron drenaje quirúrgico. La evolución en todos los pacientes fue excelente, salvo 3 excepciones, que se resolvieron con el tiempo. Conclusiones: La actual pauta corta de tratamiento i.v. disminuyó la estancia hospitalaria. Tras su instauración no se encontraron diferencias estadísticamente significativas en la duración de la clínica, ni en la PCR en el momento del alta en comparación con las pautas prolongadas previas a 2006 (AU)

Background and aims: The present study focuses on the epidemiology, clinical and laboratory data, and management of osteomyelitis in a pediatric third level hospital. Methodology: All cases of children under 15 years-old admitted with osteomyelitis between 2000 and 2011 were retrospectively reviewed until July 2006, then prospectively from then until 2011.Results: A total of 50 patients were identified (52% males) with median age at diagnosis of 2 years. Principal onset manifestations were pain (94%), functional impairment (90%) and fever (72%). The femur (32%), fibula (28%) and calcaneus (22%) were most affected bones. Leucocytosis > 12.000/micre l was found in 56%, elevated ESR > 20 mm/h in 26%, and elevated CRP > 20 mg/L in 64%. Blood culture was positive in 20%, with group A streptococcus being the most frequently isolated bacteria (11%).All diagnoses were confirmed by a 99Tc scintigraphy bone scan. Antibiotic therapy was initially intravenously (mean time of administration: 10 days ± 3SD), followed by oral medication (mean time of administration: 18 days±6 SD). Surgery was necessary in 3 patients. Evolution of all cases was excellent, despite 3 exceptions that resolved over time. Conclusions: The current short-term intravenous therapy led to shorter hospitalizations. There were no statistically significant differences between time from clinical onset or in CRP levels at discharge compared to long-term therapies prior to 2006 (AU)

[The Spanish Society of Pediatric Infectious Diseases Guidelines for the diagnosis and treatment of congenital toxoplasmosis]. / Guía de la Sociedad Española de Infectología Pediátrica para el diagnóstico y tratamiento de la toxoplasmosis congénita.

Congenital toxoplasmosis is the result of transplacental fetal infection by Toxoplasma gondii after the primary maternal infection. The severity of the disease depends on the gestational age at transmission. First trimester infections are more severe, but less frequent, than third trimester infections. Acute maternal infection is diagnosed by seroconversion or by the detection of IgM antibodies and a low IgG avidity test. In these cases, spiramycin should be initiated to prevent transmission to the fetus. For identification of fetal infection, polymerase chain reaction (PCR) testing of amniotic fluid after 18 weeks gestation should be performed. If fetal infection is confirmed, the mothers should be treated with pyrimethamine, sulfadiazine and folinic acid. Most infants infected in utero are born with no obvious signs of toxoplasmosis, but up to 80% developed learning and visual disabilities later in life. Neonatal diagnosis with IgM/IgA antibodies or blood/cerebrospinal fluid PCR may be difficult because false-negative results frequently occur. In these cases diagnosis is possible by demonstrating a rise in IgG titers during follow-up or by the detection of antibodies beyond one year of age. Early treatment with pyrimethamine and sulfadiazine may improve the ophthalmologic and neurological outcome. Congenital toxoplasmosis is a preventable disease. Pre-pregnancy screening and appropriate counseling regarding prevention measures in seronegative women may prevent fetal infection.

[Acute osteomyelitis: epidemiology, clinical manifestations, diagnosis and treatment]. / Osteomielitis aguda: epidemiología, manifestaciones clínicas, diagnóstico y tratamiento.

BACKGROUND AND AIMS: The present study focuses on the epidemiology, clinical and laboratory data, and management of osteomyelitis in a pediatric third level hospital. METHODOLOGY: All cases of children under 15 years-old admitted with osteomyelitis between 2000 and 2011 were retrospectively reviewed until July 2006, then prospectively from then until 2011. RESULTS: A total of 50 patients were identified (52% males) with median age at diagnosis of 2 years. Principal onset manifestations were pain (94%), functional impairment (90%) and fever (72%). The femur (32%), fibula (28%) and calcaneus (22%) were most affected bones. Leucocytosis > 12.000/µl was found in 56%, elevated ESR > 20 mm/h in 26%, and elevated CRP > 20 mg/L in 64%. Blood culture was positive in 20%, with group A streptococcus being the most frequently isolated bacteria (11%). All diagnoses were confirmed by a (99)Tc scintigraphy bone scan. Antibiotic therapy was initially intravenously (mean time of administration: 10 days ± 3 SD), followed by oral medication (mean time of administration: 18 days ± 6 SD). Surgery was necessary in 3 patients. Evolution of all cases was excellent, despite 3 exceptions that resolved over time. CONCLUSIONS: The current short-term intravenous therapy led to shorter hospitalizations. There were no statistically significant differences between time from clinical onset or in CRP levels at discharge compared to long-term therapies prior to 2006.

Características de niños con infección por virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana-1 que reciben tratamiento antirretroviral de gran actividad: estudio de corte transversal / Characteristics of human immunodeficiency virus-1 infected children receiving Highly active antiretroviral therapy: a cross-sectional study

Introducción: Desde 1996, cuando se inició el tratamiento antirretroviral de gran actividad (TARGA), se ha producido un cambio en el curso de la infección por el VIH, convirtiéndose en una enfermedad crónica. Nuestro objetivo fue describir las características de los niños seguidos en nuestro hospital. Pacientes y métodos: Se realizó un estudio de corte transversal, de 32 niños infectados por VIH, seguidos hasta diciembre de 2010, en el Hospital Universitario de Getafe. La evaluación de los pacientes se efectuó con datos clínicos y de laboratorio, recogidos de la última visita. Resultados: Se siguió a 32 niños con infección por VIH, 29 de ellos infectados por transmisión vertical. La edad media fue de 14 años. De acuerdo con la clasificación de los CDC, el 56% (18/32) de los niños estaban en la categoría A, el 28% (9/32) en la B y el 16% (5/32) en la C. Dentro de la categoría inmunológica, 24 (75%) se encontraban en la categoría 3, 3 (9%) en la categoría 2 y 5 (16%) en la categoría 1. La mediana del nadir de CD4 fue de 337 (12%). La mediana de CD4 en la última determinación fue de 749 (31%). Solo una adolescente con mala adherencia tenía un recuento absoluto de CD4 menor de 200 células/ml. Veintiocho pacientes (87%) recibían TARGA y 4 estaban sin tratamiento antirretroviral. De los pacientes en tratamiento, 26 (93%) presentaban cargas virales <200 copias/ml. La mediana de carga viral fue <20 copias/ml, y la mediana del tiempo de tratamiento antirretroviral fue de 10 años. La combinación más frecuente fue la de dos inhibidores de la transcriptasa inversa análogos de nucleósidos (ITIAN) y un inhibidor de la proteasa (IP), que la recibieron 15 pacientes (47%), seguida de 2 ITIAN y un inhibidor de la transcriptasa inversa no análogo (ITINN), que la recibieron 8 pacientes (29%). Dos niños con terapia de rescate recibieron raltegravir, uno con tipranavir y el otro darunavir. Un total de 12 pacientes (43%) recibían pautas una vez al día, de ellos con pautas fijas combinadas en un único comprimido se encontraron 7 pacientes (25%). Se observaron complicaciones metabólicas como hiperlipidemia o lipodistrofia en 17 niños (53%). Conclusiones: La mayoría de nuestros pacientes reciben TARGA, con un buen control inmunovirológico. La prevalencia de alteraciones metabólicas es elevada. Es necesario desarrollar estrategias para mejorar la adherencia y disminuir la toxicidad en los niños con infección por VIH de transmisión vertical (AU)

Introduction: Since 1996, when HAART became available, there has been a change in the course of HIV-infection, leading it to become a chronic disease. Our aim was to describe the characteristics of the children followed up in our hospital. Patients and methods: A cross-sectional study was conducted on 32 HIV-infected children followed up until December-2010, at the University-Hospital de Getafe. Clinical and laboratory information from the last visit was collected for the evaluation of patients. Results: Thirty-two children with HIV-1 were evaluated, 29 infected through vertical-transmission. The median age was 14 years. According to the CDC classification, 56% (18/32) of children were in category A, 28% (9/32) B and 16% (5/32) C. Immunological class was 3 in 75% of children, class 2 in 9% and class 1 in 16%. The median nadir of CD4 was 337 cells/ml (12%). The median current CD4 was 749 (31%). Only one adolescent had a CD4% below 200 cells/ml due to lack of adherence. Twenty-eight patients (87%) were receiving HAART, and 4 patients were off antiretroviral treatment. Among the patients treated, 26 (93%) had viral loads <200copies/ml. The median viral-load was<20 copies/ml. Median time on antiretroviral treatment was 10 years. The combination more frequently used was two nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTI) and one protease inhibitor (PI), that was given to 15 patients (47%), followed by 2 NRTI, and one non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) in 8 patients (29%). Two children received rescue therapy including raltegravir, one with tipranavir and the other with darunavir. A total of 12 patients (43%) received medication once a day, 7 of them with fixed-dose combinations in a single tablet (25%). There were metabolic complications, including hyperlipidaemia or lipodystrophy were observed in 17 children (53%). Conclusions: Most of our patients are receiving HAART, with good virological and immunological control. The prevalence of metabolic abnormalities was high. Strategies to improve adherence and decrease toxicities are needed in perinatally-acquired HIV-infected children (AU)

[Characteristics of human immunodeficiency virus-1 infected children receiving highly active antiretroviral therapy: a cross-sectional study]. / Características de niños con infección por virus de la inmunodeficiencia humana-1 que reciben tratamiento antirretroviral de gran actividad: estudio de corte transversal.

INTRODUCTION: Since 1996, when HAART became available, there has been a change in the course of HIV-infection, leading it to become a chronic disease. Our aim was to describe the characteristics of the children followed up in our hospital. PATIENTS AND METHODS: A cross-sectional study was conducted on 32 HIV-infected children followed up until December-2010, at the University-Hospital de Getafe. Clinical and laboratory information from the last visit was collected for the evaluation of patients. RESULTS: Thirty-two children with HIV-1 were evaluated, 29 infected through vertical-transmission. The median age was 14 years. According to the CDC classification, 56% (18/32) of children were in category A, 28% (9/32) B and 16% (5/32) C. Immunological class was 3 in 75% of children, class 2 in 9% and class 1 in 16%. The median nadir of CD4 was 337 cells/ml (12%). The median current CD4 was 749 (31%). Only one adolescent had a CD4% below 200 cells/ml due to lack of adherence. Twenty-eight patients (87%) were receiving HAART, and 4 patients were off antiretroviral treatment. Among the patients treated, 26 (93%) had viral loads <200 copies/ml. The median viral-load was<20 copies/ml. Median time on antiretroviral treatment was 10 years. The combination more frequently used was two nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitors (NRTI) and one protease inhibitor (PI), that was given to 15 patients (47%), followed by 2 NRTI, and one non-nucleoside reverse transcriptase inhibitor (NNRTI) in 8 patients (29%). Two children received rescue therapy including raltegravir, one with tipranavir and the other with darunavir. A total of 12 patients (43%) received medication once a day, 7 of them with fixed-dose combinations in a single tablet (25%). There were metabolic complications, including hyperlipidaemia or lipodystrophy were observed in 17 children (53%). CONCLUSIONS: Most of our patients are receiving HAART, with good virological and immunological control. The prevalence of metabolic abnormalities was high. Strategies to improve adherence and decrease toxicities are needed in perinatally-acquired HIV-infected children.

Exposición a antirretrovirales y toxicidad mitocondrial en una cohorte de niños no infectados hijos de madres VIH positivas / In-utero Antiretroviral exposure and mitochondrial toxicity in a cohort of uninfected infants born to HIV-1-infected women

Introducción: En el presente trabajo, pretendemos definir el porcentaje de lactantes, hijos de madre VIH−+, pertenecientes a la cohorte prospectiva madrileña Fundación para la Investigación y la Prevención del SIDA en España y expuestos a tratamiento antirretroviral intraútero y perinatal, que presentan hiperlactacidemia u otros marcadores de posible daño mitocondrial, como hipertransaminasemia, o hiperamilasemia, durante los 3 primeros meses de vida, así como establecer una correlación entre los fármacos usados y el porcentaje de lactantes con dichos efectos adversos. Métodos: Se realizó el análisis de las analíticas disponibles de 623 niños no infectados nacidos en el periodo 2000–2005, fijándose los límites para hiperlactacidemia, hipertransaminasemia e hiperamilasemia de las tablas de toxicidad pediátrica para ensayos relativos al VIH (tablas ACTG), de manera global y para cada fármaco usado durante la gestación. Resultados: Los porcentajes de niños con hiperlactacidemia a los 0,5, 1,5 y 3 meses fueron del 48, 51,4 y 43%, de entre los lactantes con analítica disponible el porcentaje de niños con elevación de GOT a los 0,5, 1,5 y 3 meses fue del 13,2, 10,4 y de 17,2%. Respectivamente, la proporción de lactantes con elevación de GPT fue del 3,3, 3,4 y 5%. No se encontró hiperamilasemia en ningún niño en el análisis de los 15 días de vida. La proporción de niños con hiperamilasemia a las 6 semanas y a los 3 meses fue de 0,6 y 2,6%. No hubo diferencias significativas al realizar la comparación de los porcentajes de hiperlactacidemia, hipertransaminasemia o hiperamilasemia según el fármaco usado intraútero. Conclusiones: Hemos encontrado un alto porcentaje de lactantes expuestos a tratamiento antirretroviral intraútero con hiperlactacidemia, acorde con los resultados de otras series, sin que se haya comunicado morbimortalidad asociada a este fenómeno y no hemos podido asociar mayor prevalencia de hiperlactacidemia, hipertransaminasemia o hiperamilasemia a ninguno de los fármacos usados en la gestación (AU)

Introduction: In this study, we attempt to find out the percentage of uninfected infants born to HIV-infected women and exposed in-utero and perinatally to Antiretroviral Treatment (ART) that show high lactate levels, or any other mitochondrial damage markers (such as hypertransaminasaemia or hyperamylasaemia), during the first three months of age. We shall also establish whether certain drugs used in-utero are associated with higher lactate, transaminase or amylase levels. Methods: We analysed the available data from 623 uninfected infants born in the Spanish FIPSE cohort that were born in the period 2000–2005. The normal values for lactate, transaminases and amylase were set according to AIDS Clinical Groups Trials toxicity tables for infants. Results: The percentages of children with high lactate levels at 0.5; 1.5 and 3 months of age were 48%, 51.4% and 43% among those infants with available data. Respectively, the percentages of children with high AST values were 13.2; 10.4 and 17.2%. The values for high ALT were 3.3%; 3.4% and 5%. The percentages for hyperamylasaemia were 0%; 0.6% and 2.6%. We found no significant difference among the drugs used in utero for the four analysed biochemical markers along the first three months of age. Conclusions: We have found a high proportion of hyperlactataemia among infants exposed in-utero to ART, as shown in other cohorts of similar characteristics. No morbidity or mortality was communicated to the cohort analysis group. No ART drug among those used in-utero was statistically associated with a higher proportion of high lactate levels in these infants (AU)

[Kawasaki disease: Diagnosis and treatment]. / Enfermedad de Kawasaki: diagnóstico y tratamiento.

INTRODUCTION: Kawasaki disease is the leading cause of acquired heart disease in children. In spite of the efficacy of intravenous immunoglobulin (IGIV), the absence of a specific diagnostic test and due to there being IGIV-refractory patients, Kawasaki disease is a major cause of coronary artery abnormalities (CAA). OBJECTIVES: To analyze the clinical and epidemiological characteristics of cases of Kawasaki disease, to evaluate the efficacy of treatments used and the CAA observed. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of children diagnosed with Kawasaki disease between January 2002 and December 2008 in a tertiary public Hospital in the South of Madrid. The diagnosis of Kawasaki disease was based on the clinical criteria proposed by the American Academy of Pediatrics in 2004. RESULTS: Twenty three children were identified. Median age was 26 months (range: 2 months-10 years). Nineteen children (82%) were younger than 5 years old. Fever and changes in the lips and oral cavity were present in all cases. Twenty-one patients (91%) received IGIV, all of them before the 10th day of disease. One child (4.7%) required the administration of more than one dose of IGIV, because persistence of fever. CAA was recorded in three patients [13.0%, (95% CI: 1-26%)], including a four month-old boy. All patients with CAA were treated with the recommended dose of IGIV, 2g/kg, between the 5th and 8th day of disease. CONCLUSIONS: Kawasaki disease was more common in children less than five years old. We observed a high rate of CAA in children with Kawasaki disease in spite of appropriate and timely treatment.

[Visceral childhood leishmaniasis: diagnosis and treatment]. / Diagnóstico y tratamiento de la leishmaniasis visceral infantil.

INTRODUCTION: Visceral leishmaniasis is endemic in Spain. New diagnostic tools and shorter regimens of treatment are been increasingly being used in children. OBJECTIVES: To analyze the clinical and epidemiological characteristics of cases of visceral leishmaniasis, to evaluate the diagnostic techniques tested and the safety and efficacy of treatments used. METHODS: We retrospectively reviewed the medical records of children diagnosed with visceral leishmaniasis between January 1994 and December 2007 in a tertiary public Hospital in the South of Madrid. The diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis was based on visualization of Leishmania sp. in bone marrow aspirate or culture or positive PCR analysis of the bone marrow aspirate. RESULTS: Eleven immunocompetent children were identified. Median age was 21 months (range: 4 months - 13 years). Fever was present in all cases, and hepatomegaly and splenomegaly in 10 (91%). Anemia was the most frequent haematological finding (100%). A bone marrow aspirate was obtained in all cases. Leishmania amastigotes were observed in 8 (73%) cases. Leishmania DNA in the bone marrow aspirate was detected in all patients who underwent this procedure. Positive immunofluorescent-antibody test (IFAT) analysis at baseline was observed in 63% of cases tested. The threshold titer for positivity was 1/40. Urinary antigen detection test was positive in 4 out of 6 (67%) children in whom I was performed. Initial treatment consisted of meglumine antimoniate in 3 patients and liposomal amphotericin B (LAB) in 8 (73%) patients. All children had an early clinical response. Only one child treated with LAB relapsed. No severe adverse events were observed with treatment. CONCLUSIONS: Visceral leishmaniasis is still a common disease in our area. Clinical and laboratory findings of visceral leishmaniasis are similar to other Mediterranean area reports. PCR analysis of the bone marrow aspirate was more sensitive than traditional diagnostic techniques. Non-invasive diagnostic techniques may be used as an aid in the diagnosis of visceral leishmaniasis in children. Short course treatment of visceral leishmaniasis with liposomal amphotericin B has been safe and effective.

Disminución del nivel de conciencia: ¿causa abdominal? / Altered consciousness: abdominal origin?

La invaginación intestinal es una causa frecuente de abdomen agudo y obstrucción intestinalen niños de entre 3 meses y 6 años de edad. Describimos el caso clínico de un niñode 2 años que acude a urgencias por un episodio de cefalea, vómitos y escasa reactividadposterior frente a estímulos. Tras un estudio inicial para la exclusión de las causas potencialesde la alteración del nivel de conciencia, la realización de una ecografía abdominal dio eldiagnóstico de invaginación ileo-ileal. La resolución posterior fue espontánea. Las causas abdominalesdeben ser excluidas en la edad pediátrica ante alteraciones del nivel de concienciainexplicadas por otros cuadros. La ecografía abdominal es una técnica no invasiva que puedeayudar al diagnóstico (AU)

Intussusception is a common cause of acute abdomen and intestinal obstruction inchildren between 3 months and 6 years old. We describe a case of a 2-year-old child whowent to the emergency department for an episode of headache, vomiting and low reactivityto stimuli. After an initial study to rule out potential causes of altered mental status,an abdominal ultrasound gave the diagnosis of ileo-ileal intussusception. The subsequentresolution was spontaneous. Abdominal causes should be excluded in the pediatric age incase of changes in level of consciousness that are unexplained by other conditions. Abdominalultrasound is a noninvasive technique that can help the diagnosis (AU)

Exposición a antirretrovirales y crecimiento en una cohorte de niños no infectados, hijos de madre con VIH positivo / Growth of uninfected infants exposed to antiretrovirals born to HIV-infected woman

Introducción: Existen datos que aseguran que la exposición al tratamiento antirretroviral (TAR) durante la gestación en la mujer infectada por VIH no afecta al posterior desarrollo ponderoestatural del lactante. El propósito de este estudio es realizar un análisis antropométrico de los niños no infectados de la cohorte de la Fundación para la Investigación y la Prevención del Sida en España (FIPSE) durante los primeros 18 meses de vida, así como analizar los posibles factores que influyen en el peso al nacimiento. Métodos: La cohorte de la FIPSE incluye 8 hospitales públicos de Madrid y sigue prospectivamente a los niños de madre infectada por VIH que haya dado a luz en estos hospitales. Se recogieron los datos de 601 niños no infectados de los que se disponía el peso al nacimiento, según los protocolos estandarizados durante los 2 primeros años de vida. Se consideraron estadísticamente significativos los valores de p menores de 0,05. Se usaron las tablas de la Fundación Pablo Orbegozo para comparar las medidas antropométricas y hallar los valores z. Resultados: La media de peso fue de 2.766g (±590) y la media de peso con exclusión de los prematuros fue de 2.967g (±427). La proporción de los niños no prematuros con crecimiento retardado intrauterino fue del 19,8% (IC del 95%: 16,3–23,8). Los hijos de madre adicta a drogas pesaron menos: 2.752(±325) versus 3.002g (±435) (p<0,001), así como los hijos de madre fumadora: 2.842(±363) versus 3.018g (±444) (p<0,001). La anemia materna no influyó en el bajo peso en la población de los niños no prematuros. No se encontraron diferencias significativas en el peso al nacimiento, de acuerdo con el tipo de TAR. Los niños de madre que presentaba CD4>500cel/mm pesaron más (2.834g [±503]) que aquéllos de madre que presentaba CD4<200cel/mm (2.565g [±702]; p=0,008). Estas diferencias no se mantienen al excluir los prematuros. En la población general, los niños de madre con cargas virales indetectables pesaron más (2.866g [±532] versus 2.704g [±588]; p=0,005), pero estas diferencias tampoco se mantuvieron en la población al excluir a los prematuros. La media de peso, talla y perímetro craneal (PC) al nacimiento de la población estudiada (con exclusión de los prematuros) es ligeramente menor al de la población española (peso z=−0,83; talla z=−1,02; PC z=−1,00), pero estas diferencias no son significativas y estas medidas son equiparables entre sí a los 18 meses de vida (peso z=−0,08; talla z=−0,32; PC z=−0,31). El tipo de tratamiento no influyó de manera significativa (AU)

Introduction: Recent reports show that Antiretroviral Treatment (ART) during pregnancy does not affect somatic growth of children born to HIV-infected mothers, are reassuring. The aim of this study is to perform an anthropometric analysis of the uninfected children followed in the Spanish FIPSE cohort during their first 18 months of life, and to describe the possible risk factors during pregnancy that may influence low birth weight. Methods: The FIPSE cohort includes 8 public hospitals in Madrid, and prospectively follows children born to HIV-infected women at these hospitals. We collected data on 601 uninfected children, following standardised protocols, during their first 2 years of life. A P value<0.05 was considered statistically significant. Data from the Pablo Orbegozo Foundation were used to compare the means of our population with the standard weight, longitude an occipitofrontal circumference (OFC) of the Spanish population during the first 18 months of life. Results: The mean weight was 2766g (+/−590), and 2967g (+/−427) when premature neonates were excluded. The proportion of Intrauterine Growth Restriction among non- premature neonates was 19.8% (95% CI: 16.3–23.8). Children born to mothers that used illicit drugs weighed less: 2752g (+/−325) vs. 3002g (+/ 435), P<0.001, as did children born to mothers who smoked during pregnancy: 2842g (+/−363) vs. 3018g (+/−444), P>0.001. Maternal anaemia did not influence the low birth weight of the children when premature neonates were excluded. We found no statistically significant differences depending on the ART received during pregnancy. Children born to mothers who had CD4 > 500 cell /mm were heavier (2834g +/−503) than those whose mothers had CD4 of less than 200 cell/mm (2565g +/−702), P=0.008. These differences disappeared when premature neonates were excluded. Children born to mothers with undetectable viral load were heavier (2866g +/−532 vs. 2704g +/−588, P=0.005), but these differences also disappeared when the prematures were excluded from the analysis. Mean weight, length, and OFC of our population at birth (excluding premature neonates) were lower than the Spanish standards. (z for weight=−0.83; z for length =−1.02; z for OFC=−1.00), but these differences are not statistically significant and disappear at 18 months of age (z for weight=−0.08; z for height=−0.32; z for OFC=−0.31). The type of ART did not have any significant influence (AU)

Revisión de los casos de paludismo de los últimos 12 años en el Hospital Universitario de Getafe / Malaria in the South of Madrid: A clinical and epidemiological review

Introducción: La incidencia del paludismo está creciendo en España y es potencialmente grave en niños. Hay poca información sobre el paludismo infantil en España. El objetivo de este estudio es evaluar las características clínicas y epidemiológicas, así como el tratamiento efectuado en los casos de paludismo en el Hospital Universitario de Getafe. Pacientes y métodos: Estudio descriptivo y retrospectivo de los casos diagnosticados en el hospital desde 1995 hasta 2007. Se analizaron datos sobre epidemiología, clínica, métodos diagnósticos y tratamiento en 2 períodos comparativos de 6 años: antes y después de enero de 2001. Resultados: Se confirmaron 18 casos de paludismo, con predominio de mujeres (2:1). El rango de edad osciló entre 13 meses y 13 años, con una mediana de 60 meses. Todos habían realizado un viaje reciente a un país endémico. Se detectó un aumento en la incidencia (p<0,01) a partir del año 2001. La clínica más frecuente fue fiebre y síntomas gastrointestinales, con hepatomegalia o esplenomegalia en el 75%. La trombopenia y la anemia fueron hallazgos frecuentes. Se realizó un examen microscópico (frotis fino) en el 100% de los casos. La identificación de la especie de Plasmodium se obtuvo mediante PCR (polymerase chain reaction ‘reacción en cadena de la polimerasa’) en 16 casos, y se detectó Plasmodium falciparum en un 89% de éstos. Se trataron con sulfato de quinina y clindamicina un 72% de los casos. No hubo ningún caso de malaria complicada o fallecimiento. Conclusiones: La incidencia del paludismo importado está aumentando en el área sur de Madrid, y el agente causal mayoritario es el P. falciparum. La visualización del protozoo en el examen microscópico y la detección de su antígeno en sangre son buenos métodos de diagnóstico, pero es fundamental realizar una PCR al ingreso para conocer la especie de Plasmodium y para identificar posibles parasitaciones mixtas. Dada su potencial gravedad en la infancia, se debe tener un alto índice de sospecha para iniciar de forma precoz un adecuado tratamiento, lo que condiciona un mejor pronóstico (AU)

Introduction: Malaria has increased in Spain, and is potentially severe in children. Information on pediatric malaria in Spain is scarce. The aim is to evaluate the clinical, therapeutic and epidemiological characteristics of children diagnosed with malaria in our hospital. Patients and methods: A retrospective descriptive study was performed on all pediatric cases of malaria diagnosed in Getafe University Hospital, from January 1995 to November 2006. Epidemiological and clinical features, as well as diagnostic methods, treatments and outcome were studied. An analysis of two comparative periods (before and after January 2000) was carried out. Results: Eighteen cases of confirmed malaria were identified, twelve girls and six boys. The age range was from 13 months to 13 years with a median age of 60 months. All patients had recently travelled to or from endemic countries. Despite having a stable number of admissions to hospital over time, all but two patients were diagnosed in the second period (P<0.01).Fever and gastrointestinal symptoms were the most common symptoms, with liver or spleen enlargement in 75%. Thrombocytopenia and anemia were common. No cases of complicated malaria or death occurred. Plasmodium identification by microscopic examination was used in all cases. Identification of Plasmodium species with PCR was carried out in 16 children. P. falciparum was found in 89% of these cases. Quinine-sulphate and clindamycin were used in 72%. Conclusions: The incidence of pediatric malaria is increasing in the southern area of Madrid, with P. falciparum as the most frequently identified species. Microscopic visualization or identification of its antigen are gold-standard diagnostic methods, however, identification with PCR is essential upon admission to determine the species and discard possible multiple infestations. Pediatricians must learn to suspect this potentially severe disease, in order to establish an early treatment that may improve the prognosis (AU)